Tracing the Brutal Path of Colonization to the Rise of Resistance and the Quest for Freedom

A glimpse into the plunder and exploitation of 90–100 modern nations by Western imperial powers.

Over the last two weeks, we have been covering Substack notes on the subject of colonization and freedom struggles of various countries in Asia and Africa. We will conclude the series with a summary overview of colonization, resistance, and the fight for freedom, all of which represents a brutal chapter in human history. As the saying goes, history is very forgiving. Nations that once ruthlessly exploited much of the world now portray themselves as champions of human rights, blaming the countries they once ruled, exploited and left with power vacuums that led to periods of anarchy, as being underdeveloped and uncivilized.

This post will summarize how colonialism progressed over several centuries, starting with European exploration and conquest, and continuing through eras of economic exploitation, cultural domination, and eventually decolonization after the weakening of European powers following World War II.

1. Early European Colonization (15th-16th Centuries)

The first major wave of European colonialism began with the Spanish and Portuguese conquests in the late 15th century, following the voyages of Columbus and Vasco da Gama. This period was driven by a desire for proverbial 3Gs (Gold, Glory, and God, i.e. wealth, power, and religious conversion): Spain and Portugal were the earliest colonial powers, establishing vast empires in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. The Spanish conquest of the Americas (from 1492 onwards) decimated indigenous populations through violence, disease, and exploitation. The Portuguese focused on both South America (particularly Brazil) and coastal regions of Africa and Asia.

Key features of this era include:

• Encomienda system: In Spanish colonies, indigenous people were often forced into labor in exchange for supposed protection and religious conversion.
• Economic Exploitation: Wealth flowed back to Europe, particularly in the form of gold, silver, and agricultural products.

2. Expansion of Colonial Empires (17th-18th Centuries)

As Spain and Portugal’s dominance waned, other European powers, i.e. Britain, France, the Netherlands, and later Belgium expanded their own empires. The colonial race spread across the Americas, Africa, and Asia, with trade, plantation economies, and the transatlantic slave trade fueling imperial wealth.

Key feature of this era includes:

• Mercantilism: European powers sought to control trade routes and resources, creating monopolies on goods like sugar, tobacco, and spices.
• Plantation Economies: Slave labor, especially from Africa, was used extensively in the Americas to produce cash crops.
• Colonial Rivalries: Competition among European powers often led to wars and territorial disputes (e.g., the Seven Years’ War, 1756–1763).

3. Height of Imperialism (19th Century)

The 19th century marked the peak of European imperialism, driven by the Industrial Revolution, which created a demand for raw materials and new markets. During this time, the colonization of Africa and Asia accelerated dramatically.

Key features of this era include:

• Scramble for Africa: The Berlin Conference (1884–85) formalized the division of Africa among European powers, often ignoring ethnic and cultural boundaries. By the early 20th century, nearly all of Africa was under European control.
• Colonization of India: Britain formalized its rule over India following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, consolidating its economic and political dominance.
• Opium Wars and China: Britain and other Western powers forced open Chinese markets in the mid-19th century, leading to spheres of influence within China.
  During this era, European powers justified their colonization under the guise of the “civilizing mission” — the belief that it was their duty to bring Western civilization, Christianity, and modernity to the rest of the world. However, colonial rule was often brutal and exploitative, and indigenous cultures were systematically undermined.

4. Resistance and Early Independence Movements (Late 19th to Early 20th Century)

As colonialism deepened, resistance to European rule began to grow. While some indigenous societies had resisted from the outset, more organized movements emerged by the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Key features of this era include:

• Nationalist Movements: Colonized peoples in Asia, Africa, and the Americas began organizing to fight for independence, often inspired by Western ideas of nationalism, liberalism, and socialism.
• Revolutions and Wars for Independence: Early successes in the Americas, such as the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) and the Latin American wars of independence (early 19th century), were followed by uprisings in other regions.
• Rise of Anti-Colonial Leaders: Figures like Mahatma Gandhi in India, José Martí in Cuba, and Emiliano Zapata in Mexico became symbols of the fight against imperialism.

5. Decolonization after World War II (1945–1960s)

The aftermath of World War II marked the beginning of the end for most colonial empires. The war weakened European powers shifted their focus towards self-determination and the dismantling of empires.

Key features of this era include:

• Weakened European Powers: Britain, France, and other colonial powers were financially and politically weakened by the war, making it harder to maintain control over their colonies.
• Global Pressure for Decolonization: The creation of the United Nations (1945) and its emphasis on self-determination, along with pressure from the United States and the Soviet Union, helped accelerate the push for independence.
• Major Independence Movements:
• India gained independence from Britain in 1947, leading to the partition into India and Pakistan.
• Indonesia declared independence from the Dutch in 1945, although it took several years of conflict to achieve full recognition.
• African Nations: Many African countries gained independence throughout the 1950s and 1960s, including Ghana (1957), Kenya (1963), and Algeria (1962).
• The decolonization process was often turbulent, with violent struggles in some areas, while others achieved independence through negotiation and diplomacy. Post-colonial nations faced significant challenges, including the legacy of exploitative economic systems, ethnic divisions, and political instability.

Colonialism evolved from early European exploration and conquest, through the expansion and domination of entire continents, to the eventual collapse of colonial empires after World War II. While early colonization focused on wealth extraction and religious conversion, by the 19th century it became a global system of control justified by ideas of racial superiority and the “civilizing mission.” The process of decolonization, which began in earnest after World War II, marked the end of centuries of imperial rule, but left behind a complex legacy of economic, social, and political challenges in former colonies.

In the post-WW2 era, the dominance and exploitation of developing nations continue through economic hegemony, political interference via covert operations, instigating conflicts between powerful factions, supporting pro-Western groups, and undermining anti-Western elements.